Feasts The Archaeology and History of Celebrating Food

Feasting, loosely defined as the public consumption of an elaborate meal often accompanied by entertainment, is a feature of most ancient and modern societies. Hayden and Villeneuve recently defined feasting as any sharing of special food (in quality, preparation or quantity) by two or more people for a special (not everyday) event. Feasting is related to the control of food production  and often is seen as a medium for social interaction, serving as both a way to create prestige for the host  and to create commonality within a community through the sharing of food. Further, feasting takes planning, as Hastorf points out: resources need to be hoarded, preparation and clean up labor needs to be managed, special serving plates and utensils need to be created or borrowed. Goals served by feasting include paying debts, displaying opulence, gaining allies, frightening enemies, negotiating war and peace, celebrating rites of passage, communicating with the gods and honoring the dead. For archaeologists, feasting is the rare ritual activity that can be reliably identified in the archaeological record. Hayden (2009) has argued that feasting should be considered within the major context of domestication: that domestication of plants and animals reduces the risk inherent in hunting and gathering and allows surpluses to be created. He goes further to argue that the requirements of Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic feasting created the impetus for domestication: and indeed, the earliest feast identified to date is from the peri-agricultural Natufian period, and consists solely of wild animals. Earliest Accounts The earliest references to feasting in literature date to a Sumerian [3000-2350 BC] myth in which the god Enki offers the goddess Inanna some butter cakes and beer. A bronze vessel dated to the Shang dynasty [1700-1046 BC] in China illustrates worshipers offering their ancestors wine, soup, and fresh fruits. Homer [8th century BC] describes several feasts in the Iliad and the Odyssey, including the famous Poseidon feast at Pylos. About AD 921, the Arabian traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan reported a funeral feast including a boat burial at a Viking colony in what is today Russia. Archaeological evidence of feasting has been found throughout the world. The oldest possible evidence for feasting is at the Natufian site of Hilazon Tachtit Cave, where evidence suggests a feast was conducted at an elderly womans burial about 12,000 years ago. A few recent studies include Neolithic Rudston Wold (2900–2400 BC); Mesopotamian Ur (2550 BC); Buena Vista, Peru (2200 BC); Minoan Petras, Crete (1900 BC); Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1150 BC); Cuauhtà ©moc, Mexico (800-900 BC); Swahili culture Chwaka, Tanzania (AD 700–1500); Mississippian Moundville, Alabama (1200-1450 AD); Hohokam Marana, Arizona (AD 1250); Inca Tiwanaku, Bolivia (AD 1400-1532); and Iron Age Hueda, Benin (AD 1650-1727). Anthropological Interpretations The meaning of feasting, in anthropological terms, has changed considerably over the past 150 years. The earliest descriptions of lavish feasting provoked colonial European administrations to comment disparagingly on the waste of resources, and traditional feasting such as the potlatch in British Columbia and cattle sacrifices in India were outright banned by the governments in the late nineteenth-early twentieth centuries. Franz Boas, writing in the early 1920s, described feasting as a rational economic investment for high status individuals. By the 1940s, the dominant anthropological theories focused on feasting as expression of competition for resources, and a means to increase productivity. Writing in the 1950s, Raymond Firth argued that feasting promoted social unity, and Malinowski maintained that feasting increased the prestige or status of the feast-giver. By the early 1970s, Sahlins and Rappaport were arguing that feasting could be a means of redistributing resources from different specialized production areas. Feast Categories More recently, interpretations have become more nuanced. Three broad and intersecting categories of feasting are emerging from the literature, according to Hastorf: celebratory/communal; patron-client; and status/display feasts. Celebratory feasts are reunions between equals: these include wedding and harvest feasts, backyard barbeques and potluck suppers. The patron-client feast is when the giver and receiver are clearly identified, with the host expected to distribute his or her largesse of wealth. Status feasts are a political device to create or bolster  status differences  between host and attendees. Exclusivity and taste are emphasized: luxury dishes and exotic foods are served. Archaeological Interpretations While archaeologists often are grounded in anthropological theory, they also take a diachronic view: how did feasting arise and change over time? The upshot of a century and a half of studies have produced a plethora of notions, including tying feasting to the indtroduction of storage, agriculture, alcohol, luxury foods, pottery, and the public participation in the construction of monuments. Feasts are most readily identifiable archaeologically when they occur at burials, and the evidence is left in place, such as the royal burials at Ur, Hallstatts Iron Age  Heuenberg  burial or Qin Dynasty Chinas  terracotta army. Accepted evidence for feasting not associated specifically with funerary events includes the images of feasting behavior in iconographic murals or paintings. The contents of midden deposits, particularly the quantity and variety of animal bones or exotic foodstuffs, is accepted as indicators of mass consumption; and the presence of multiple  storage features  within a certain segment of a village is also considered indicative. Specific dishes, highly decorated, large serving platters or bowls, are sometimes taken as evidence of feasting. Architectural constructions--plazas, elevated platforms, longhouses--are often described as public spaces where feasting may have taken place. In those places, soil chemistry, isotopic analysis and residue analysis have been used to bolster support for past feasting. Sources Duncan NA, Pearsall DM, and Benfer J, Robert A. 2009. Gourd and squash artifacts yield starch grains of feasting foods from preceramic Peru. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(32):13202-13206. Fleisher J. 2010. Rituals of consumption and the politics of feasting on the eastern African coast, AD 700–1500. Journal of World Prehistory 23(4):195-217. Grimstead D, and Bayham F. 2010. Evolutionary ecology, elite feasting, and the Hohokam: A case study from a southern Arizona platform mound. American Antiquity 75(4):841-864. Haggis DC. 2007. Stylistic diversity and diacritical feasting at Protopalatial Petras: a preliminary analysis of the Lakkos deposit. American Journal of Archaeology 111(4):715-775. Hastorf CA. 2008. Food and feasting, social and political aspects. In: Pearsall DM, editor. Encyclopedia of Archaeology. London: Elsevier Inc. p 1386-1395. doi:10.1016/B978-012373962-9.00113-8 Hayden B. 2009. The proof is in the pudding: Feasting and the origins of domestication. Current Anthropology 50(5):597-601. Hayden B, and Villeneuve S. 2011. A century of feasting studies. Annual Review of Anthropology 40(1):433-449. Joyce RA, and Henderson JS. 2007. From feasting to cuisine: Implications of archaeological research in an early Honduran village. American Anthropologist 109(4):642–653. doi: 10.1525/aa.2007.109.4.642 Knight VJ Jr. 2004. Characterizing elite midden deposits at Moundville. American Antiquity 69(2):304-321. Knudson KJ, Gardella KR, and Yaeger J. 2012. Provisioning Inka feasts at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the geographic origins of camelids in the Pumapunku complex. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(2):479-491. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.003 Kuijt I. 2009. What do we really know about food storage, surplus, and feasting in preagricultural communities? Current Anthropology 50(5):641-644. Munro ND, and Grosman L. 2010. Early evidence (ca. 12,000 B.P.) for feasting at a burial cave in Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(35):15362-15366. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001809107 Piperno DR. 2011. The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments. Current Anthropology 52(S4):S453-S470. Rosenswig RM. 2007. Beyond identifying elites: Feasting as a means to understand early Middle Formative society on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26(1):1-27. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2006.02.002 Rowley-Conwy P, and Owen AC. 2011. Grooved ware feasting in Yorkshire: Late Neolithic animal consumption at Rudston Wold. Oxford Journal Of Archaeology 30(4):325-367. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2011.00371.x

Definition of Zwitterion

A  zwitterion is a molecule that contains both positively and negatively charged functional groups, and the net charge of the entire molecule is zero. Amino acids are the best-known examples of  zwitterions. They contain an amine group (basic) and a carboxyl group (acidic).

The Evolution of the Mba Free Essays

Reading List for Technology and Innovation Strategy: 463 – Management and Strategy, Kellogg School of Management Professor Shane Greenstein Students will be held accountable for all required readings. These must be read ahead of class discussion. Related readings are relevant background. We will write a custom essay sample on The Evolution of the Mba or any similar topic only for you Order Now These are included for the interested student. I highly recommend them for a fuller perspective on the topic. Topic 1: Basic Frameworks and Toolkits Topic 1a. Adoption and Evolution Required reading: Geoffrey Moore. Chapters 1 and 2, High Tech Marketing Illusion, High Tech marketing Enlightenment, Crossing the Chasm, Harper Business, 2006. Not in reading packet. Please purchase book. ) Rosenberg, Nathan, â€Å"Innovation’s Uncertain Terrain. † McKinsey Quarterly, pp. 170-185, Issue 3, 1995. In class video: Interview with Dan Bricklin, founder of Visicalc, from Triumph of the Nerds, An Irreverent History of the PC Industry, By Bob Cringely. Ambrose Video, RM Associates. 1996 Related reading: Geoffrey Moore, To Succeed in the Long Term, Focus on the Middle Term, Harvard Business Review, July 2007. Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes and John Groenewegen, â€Å"Crossing the Chasm: the Apple AirPort. † Chapter 4 of The Innovation Journey of Wi-Fi: The Road o Global Success, C ambridge Press. Greenstein, â€Å"Virulent Word of Mouse. † And â€Å"An Earful about Zvi’s Email. † http://www. kellogg. northwestern. edu/faculty/greenstein/images/columns-older. html â€Å"Early Adopter, Enthusiast or Pioneer? A User’s guide to Technology Lingo. † http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ 1b: Capturing value in value chains: the basics. Greg Linden, Kenneth L. Kraemer, and Jason Dedrick, â€Å"Who Captures Value from innovation in global value chains? A Study of the iPod and Notebook PC. Industrial and Corporate Change, June, 2009. Greg Linden, Kenneth L. Kraemer, and Jason Dedrick, The Distribution of Value in the Mobile Phone Supply Chain Related reading Francesco Zirpoli and Markus C. Becker, â€Å"What Happens When you Outsource too Much? † SMR 374, Winter 2011. Topic 1c: Attackers’ advantage during diffusion Required reading: â€Å"The Crisis at Encyclopeadia Britannica,† Kellogg Teaching Case, Revised version, August, 2009. Joseph Bower and Clayton Christensen, â€Å"Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave† in (Ed) John Seely Brown, Seeing Differently: Insights on Innovation, Harvard Business Review Book, 1997 See class page on Blackboard, under the Assignment folder. Related reading: John Hagel III, John Seeley Brown, Lang Davison, â€Å"Shaping Strategy in a World of Constant Disruption,† Harvard Business Review, October 2008. Greenstein, â€Å"Creative Destruction and Deconstruction. † http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/, October, 2004. Topic 1d: Installed Base and Standards Required Reading: Carl Shapiro and Hal Varian, Information Rules, Chapters 5, 6, 7 8. Recognizing Lock-in, Managing Lock-in, Networks and Positive Feedback, Cooperation and Compatibility, Harvard Business School Press, 1998. Not in case packet. Please purchase book. ) In class video: Interview with the founders of McAfee Associates, from Nerds 2. 0. 1, A Brief History of the Internet, Bob Cringely, PBS Home Video, 1998. Related Reading: â€Å"Bleeding Edge Mass Market Standards,† and â€Å"Bird Watching for Nerds: Splintering the Internet,† and â€Å"The Grocery Scanner and Bar Code Economy,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 1e: Attackers Advantage versus Installed Base: Microsoft and Netscape Required Reading: Browser Wars, 1994-98, HBS Case 9-798-094 In class video: Interview with Andreeson, Clark, Gates, Ballmer, Metcalfe, from Nerds 2. 0. 1, A Brief History of the Internet, Bob Cringely, PBS Home Video, 1998. Related Reading: Timothy Bresnahan and Pai-Ling Yin, â€Å"Standard Setting in Markets: The Browser Wars,† in Greenstein and Stango, Standards and Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, pp. 18-59. See class page on Blackboard, under the Assignment folder. Greenstein, â€Å"The Long Arc Behind Bill Gates’ Wealth, Part I and Part II,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 2: Systems and Platforms Topic 2a. Classic frameworks and new approaches Required reading: Andrei Hagiu, Note on Multi-sided Platforms: Economic Foundations and Strategy, HBS Case, 9-709-484 Related reading: Michael Cusumano and Annabelle Gawer, Elements of Platform Leadership, Sloan Management Review. Spring 2002, (43) 3, pp 51- 58. â€Å"Gateway Economics,† and â€Å"The Lexicon of Network Economics,† and â€Å"Managing Complements,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 2b: Developing a multi-sided platform at Google Required reading: Google Inc, HBS Case 9-910-036 In class video: Hal Varian, Introduction to the Google Ad Auction, Made for YouTube. Related Reading: Andrei Hagiu and David Yoffie, â€Å"What’s your Google Strategy? † Harvard Business Review. R0904. Greenstein, â€Å"A Big Payoff,† â€Å"The Next Chapter at Google,† and â€Å"Did one invention lead to the decline of newspapers? † http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 2c: Entrepreneurial product development for a platform Required reading: â€Å"Developing an App for That,† HBS Case 9-711-415, August 2, 2011. Related reading: Bhide, Amar (1996). â€Å"The Questions Every Entrepreneur Must Answer,† Harvard Business Review, HBS Reprint 96603-PDF-ENG â€Å"Google’s Android: Will it shake up the Wireless Industry in 2009 and Beyond? Case SM-176. â€Å"Gaming Structure,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 3: Commercialization Topic 3a: Commercialization Strategy Required reading: Joshua Gans and Scott Stern, â€Å"The Product Market and the Market for Ideas: Commercialization Strategies for Techn ology Entrepreneurs. † Research Policy, In class video: Interview with Rod Cannon, in Triumph of the Nerds by Bob Cringely. 1996 Related reading: Seabrook, J. , â€Å"The Flash of Genius,† The New Yorker. Greenstein, â€Å"Imitation Happens,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 3b: Merger for knowledge transfer: Cisco Systems Required reading: â€Å"Cisco: Early if Not Elegant (A) and (B), Darden Case, UV 1632. Recommended reading: Bunnell and Brate, Making the Cisco Connection, Chapter 6, The Benevolent Predator. Geoffrey A. Moore, 2008, Dealing with Darwin, How Great Companies Innovate at Every Phase of Their Evolution, Penguin Group, pp 100-109, 159-167, and 181 -191 Ironport, Stanford GSB Case, E-334. Topic 3c: Commercialization experiments: Markets for intellectual property Required Reading: â€Å"Intellectual Ventures,† Case 9-710-423, Related reading: Nathan Myhrvold, Funding Eureka! HBR article, March, 2010. â€Å"When Patents Attack. † Originally aired on WBEZ/This American Life on 7. 22. 2011. http://www. thisamericanlife. org/radio-archives/episode/441/when-patents-attack Davis, Lee (2008). â€Å"Licensing Strategies of the New Intellectual Property Vendors,† California Management Review Greenstein, â€Å"Smart Phone patents and Platform Wars,† http://virulentwordof mouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 3d. Commercialization Experiments: Online without intellectual property. Required reading: RadioHead: Music at your own price (A) and (B), Case 9-508-110, 9-508-111 Related reading: â€Å"Pandora Radio: Fire Unprofitable customers? † HBS case 5-610-078, April 2011. â€Å"Digitization and Value creation,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 4: Firm boundary and scope Topic 4a: Extending functionality: Intel Required reading: â€Å"Intel Centrino in 2007: A new Platform Strategy for Growth. † SM-156. Related reading: Shane Greenstein â€Å"Economic Experiments and the Development of Wi-Fi. † Edited by Steven Kahl, Michael Cusumano, and Brian Silverman. Advances in Strategic Managements, V 29. Chapter 1, pp. 3-33. Emerald Group Publishing; Bingley, UK. Greenstein, February 2007, â€Å"The High Costs of a Cheap Lesson,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ 4b: Climbing the value chain Required reading Flextronics International, LTD, 9-604-063, April, 2010. HTC Corp. in 2012, HBS case 9-712-423, September, 2012. Related reading Greenstein, â€Å"Outsourcing and Two Views for Climbing the Value Chain,† http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 4c: User-contributed content Required Reading: â€Å"Wikipedia in the Spotlight,† Kellogg Teaching Case. August, 2009. Recommended Reading: â€Å"Wagging Wikipedia’s Long Tail. â€Å"Another Venerable Establishment Surrenders to Wikipedia,† and â€Å"The Range of Linus’ Law. † http://virulentwordofmouse. wordpress. com/ Topic 4d: Entrepreneurship and user participation Required reading: â€Å"Triumph of the Commons: Wikia and the Commercialization of Open Source Communities in 2009. † Kellogg Teaching case, October, 2009. Ye lp, Case 9-709-412 MentorMob and the Reinvention of Learning, August, 2011. Related Reading: Eric Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, First Monday. www. firstmonday. dk See class page on Blackboard, under the Assignment folder. Foursquare, HBS Case 9-711-418 How to cite The Evolution of the Mba, Papers

Organizations in Global Environment Business Management

Question: Discuss about the Organizations in Global Environment for Business Management. Answer: Section 1 The assignment is about organisational structure and design. Organisational structure is the combination of the co-ordination among different departments, task allocation and supervision to achieve the organisational goals. Flow of information towards different tiers of the hierarchical structure is determined by the organisational structure. In case of centralised organisational structure, the decision making power are mostly accrued by the higher authority (Goetsch and Davis 2014). The study focuses on different types of organisational structure. The lecture talks about the different key elements of organisational structure such as work specialisation, departmentalisation, chain of command and span of control. Work specialisation leads to the need of department segmentation within the organisation. The chain of command flows from the superiors to the subordinates. The superior heads are functional head of the organisation, project manager and department head. The span of control de pends on the size of the team member (Laguna and Marklund 2013). The span of control is stronger if the number of employees is small. Organisational structure can be distinguished as mechanistic structure and organic structure. The characteristics of mechanistic structure are existence of high specialisation in each department, rigid departmentalisation with clear chain of command (Morris et al. 2012). Formalisation of rules and regulations are high in this structure. High formalisation leads to the centralisation of power in this organisation. The main characteristics of the organic structure are presence of cross hierarchical team in each department. This structure facilitates the organisation by allowing free flow of information across the hierarchy. Decentralisation of power is another important characteristic. In this structure, span of control is wide unlike the mechanistic structure. Main difference between these two types of structure lies in the internal environment. The in ternal environment of the mechanistic environment is stable and that of organic structure is dynamic. Organisation design provides a platform to the organisation in which it can exercise its goals and objectives. The main contingency factors for organisational design are environmental uncertainty and organisational structure, application of technology, organisational strategy and size of the organisation. In the changing external business environment, organic structure is more suitable. Based on the organisation hierarchy, the structure can be distinguished as simple, divisional and functional structure. The study has highlighted the presentation of matrix structure, which includes co-ordination among workers, team effort, dual chain command and requirement of specialists. Hofstedes classification of culture influences the team building in an organisation. The classification is done based on power distance, time orientation, comparison between quality and quantity of life, avoidance of uncertainty and comparison between individualism and collectivism (Wilden et al. 2013). The study highlights holacracy structure, which is characterised as self management in the organisation. This structure increases accountability and transparency in the organisation system. This structure differs from team based and bureaucracy structure as unlike these two structures, holocracy system is independent of hierarchy management. Therefore, decision making process is more flexible compared to other two. Section2 IBM took decision to enter into the business of personal computer during 1980. At the initial stage, the company started with 12 people. However, with the expansion of business, the number employee has increased. IBM is a learning organisation. It has improved its organisation structure and design responding to changing business needs. It has dynamic organisation culture and hierarchy. IBM started its business with mechanistic structure and its limited resources. However, with the expansion of business, the organisational structure has changed to organic. Free flow of information has changed the internal business environment. Divisional structure is followed in IBM. The hierarchy is divided according to geography. Decision making Section 1 The lecture is about decision making process of different economic agents. Different group of individual has different perspective of decision making. A loan manager of a bank takes decision based on profitability. However, the profitability depends on the liquidity in the economy. The decision making leads to benefit of the society (Glimcher and Fehr 2013). A treasurer takes decision to make profit. In order to make profit, the treasurer has to expand the business. The business expansion requires investment in large equipment. Decision making process of every agent has three processes such as choosing among the alternative, implementation and evaluation (Scott and Davis 2015). The decision has to identify the best possible options before undertaking a project. For optimum decision making, the decision maker has to make a cost benefit analysis. The project, which has least cost, needs to be undertaken. For example, a car company can take decision to stop the car or alternatively chos e to launch new type of SUV. The reason behind this decision is either dropping demand in car market or the supply may have exceeded than demand (Snyder and Diesing 2015). Therefore, there would be a specific reason for every decision making. Three perspectives of decision making are ration, bounded and intuition. A payoff matrix helps in optimal decision making. In the view of Simon, economic man takes decision to maximise utility. However, the administrative man satisfies the decision maker rather than maximisation. Rational decision maker chooses mini-max strategy. The bounded decision maker uses simplified model and satisfactory decision. In contrast, intuition is based on experience. Intuition is cognitive and value based. The pessimist decision maker chooses maximin strategy, the optimists choose maximax strategy and the neutral chooses minimax strategy (Dane, Rockmann and Pratt 2012). Decision making conditions are certainty of event, risk of occurrence and uncertainty. In ca se of certainty, the outcome is known. In case of uncertain event, the outcome is not known. Therefore, uncertain event is associated with risks. The type of various decision-making is described as ill structured and well structured based on programming. Section 2 In the market of personal computer, there are numerous firms. Dell is popular computer manufacturing firm. Consumer chooses the product based on quality and price. In competitive market, there are other factors that can influence demand for PC and laptop. Reliability, warranty, weight, screen size and resolution and price are the determinant factors. Consumer considers the factors before purchasing laptop. In this case, consumes are the rational decision makers. On the other hand, the manager of Dell applies intuition in decision making. Intuitive decision maker applies past experience in the market of PC and laptop. References Dane, E., Rockmann, K.W. and Pratt, M.G., 2012. When should I trust my gut? Linking domain expertise to intuitive decision-making effectiveness.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,119(2), pp.187-194. Glimcher, P.W. and Fehr, E. eds., 2013.Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain. Academic Press. Scott, W.R. and Davis, G.F., 2015.Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural and open systems perspectives. Routledge. Snyder, G.H. and Diesing, P., 2015.Conflict among nations: Bargaining, decision making, and system structure in international crises. Princeton University Press. Goetsch, D.L. and Davis, S.B., 2014.Quality management for organizational excellence. pearson. Laguna, M. and Marklund, J., 2013.Business process modeling, simulation and design. CRC Press. Morris, W., Volosskiy, B., Demir, S., GaÃÅ' ndara, F., McGrier, P.L., Furukawa, H., Cascio, D., Stoddart, J.F. and Yaghi, O.M., 2012. Synthesis, structure, and metalation of two new highly porous zirconium metalorganic frameworks.Inorganic chemistry,51(12), pp.6443-6445. Wilden, R., Gudergan, S.P., Nielsen, B.B. and Lings, I., 2013. Dynamic capabilities and performance: strategy, structure and environment.Long Range Planning,46(1), pp.72-96.